Following her forces’ defeat against Octavian, the future first emperor of Rome, Cleopatra, queen of Egypt and lover of Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, takes her own life.
Born in 69 B.C., Cleopatra became Cleopatra VII, queen of Egypt, after her father, Ptolemy XII, died in 51 B.C. Her brother was simultaneously crowned King Ptolemy XIII, and together the siblings ruled Egypt under the formal designation of husband and wife. Both Cleopatra and Ptolemy belonged to the Macedonian dynasty that had governed Egypt since Alexander the Great’s death in 323 B.C. Cleopatra was distinct in her ruling house, as she alone learned the Egyptian language despite having no Egyptian heritage. To strengthen her appeal to the Egyptians, she was also declared the daughter of Re, the Egyptian sun god. However, soon conflicts arose between her and her brother, leading to a civil war in 48 B.C.
At the same time, Rome, the predominant power in the Western world, was experiencing its own civil war. Just as Cleopatra was gearing up to attack her brother with a formidable Arab army, the Roman civil war spread into Egypt. After being defeated by Julius Caesar in Greece, Pompey the Great sought refuge in Egypt but was promptly murdered by Ptolemy XIII’s agents. Shortly afterward, Caesar arrived in Alexandria and, upon discovering his adversary dead, chose to restore stability in Egypt.
Over the previous century, Rome had increasingly dominated the wealthy Egyptian kingdom, prompting Cleopatra to pursue her political goals by gaining Caesar’s favor. She reportedly made her way to the royal palace in Alexandria, where she was presented to Caesar wrapped in a carpet, which he received as an offering. Captivated by her beauty and charm, the powerful Roman leader agreed to intervene in the ongoing Egyptian civil conflict on her behalf.
In 47 B.C., after suffering defeat at the hands of Caesar’s forces, Ptolemy XIII was killed, allowing Cleopatra to rule alongside another of her brothers, Ptolemy XIV. An intimate relationship blossomed between Cleopatra and Caesar, leading to several passionate weeks together before Caesar left for Asia Minor, where he coined the phrase “Veni, vidi, vici” (I came, I saw, I conquered) after suppressing a rebellion. In June 47 B.C., Cleopatra gave birth to a son, whom she asserted was Caesar’s, naming him Caesarion, which means “little Caesar.”
When Caesar returned victoriously to Rome, Cleopatra and her son Caesarion joined him there. Living discreetly in a villa owned by Caesar outside the city, Cleopatra sought to negotiate a treaty with Rome. After Caesar’s assassination in March 44 B.C., she returned to Egypt. Shortly thereafter, Ptolemy XIV died, presumably poisoned by Cleopatra, who then declared her son co-ruler as Ptolemy XV Caesar.
With Caesar’s assassination, Rome slid back into civil war, which was briefly addressed in 43 B.C. by forming the second triumvirate, consisting of Octavian, Caesar’s great-nephew and designated heir; Mark Antony, a formidable general; and Lepidus, a prominent Roman statesman. Antony took charge of the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire and summoned Cleopatra to Tarsus, in Asia Minor, to respond to allegations of her aiding his enemies.
In a bid to seduce Antony, as she had with Caesar before him, Cleopatra arrived in Tarsus in 41 B.C. aboard a splendid river barge, dressed as Venus, the Roman goddess of love. Her charm was effective; Antony returned with her to Alexandria, where they indulged in lavish excesses throughout the winter. In 40 B.C., Antony returned to Rome and wed Octavian’s sister, Octavia, in an attempt to repair his faltering alliance with Octavian. However, the triumvirate continued to fall apart. In 37 B.C., Antony distanced himself from…Octavian traveled east, making arrangements for Cleopatra to meet him in Syria.
During their separation, Cleopatra gave birth to twins, a son and a daughter. Octavian’s propagandists claimed that the two were married, which contravened Roman laws prohibiting Romans from marrying non-Romans.
Antony’s failed military expedition against Parthia in 36 B.C. diminished his reputation further; however, in 34 B.C., he found success against Armenia. To commemorate the victory, he orchestrated a triumphal procession through Alexandria’s streets, where he and Cleopatra were crowned on golden thrones, and Caesarion along with their children were granted significant royal titles. Many in Rome, influenced by Octavian, interpreted this spectacle as a signal that Antony aimed to hand over the Roman Empire to outsiders.
After years filled with propaganda and rising tensions, Octavian declared war against Cleopatra—and by extension Antony—in 31 B.C. Despite some enemies of Octavian rallying to support Antony, Octavian’s skilled military leaders achieved early victories over Antony’s forces. On September 2, 31 B.C., their naval fleets clashed at Actium in Greece. After intense combat, Cleopatra withdrew from the battle and sailed for Egypt aboard 60 ships, with Antony breaking through the enemy ranks to follow her. The remaining fleet, demoralized, surrendered to Octavian. Just a week later, Antony’s ground forces capitulated.
Even though they faced a significant defeat, it took nearly a year for Octavian to reach Alexandria and again overpower Antony. Following the battle, Cleopatra sought refuge in the mausoleum she had built for herself. Believing Cleopatra was dead, Antony fatally stabbed himself. However, another messenger soon arrived to relay that Cleopatra was still alive. Antony was then carried to Cleopatra’s hiding place, where he passed away after urging her to seek peace with Octavian. When the victorious Roman arrived, she attempted to allure him, but he resisted her advances. Rather than succumb to Octavian’s rule, Cleopatra chose to commit suicide on August 30, 30 B.C., possibly using an asp, a venomous Egyptian serpent symbolizing divine royalty.
Following her death, Octavian executed her son Caesarion, annexed Egypt into the Roman Empire, and utilized Cleopatra’s wealth to pay his veterans. In 27 B.C., Octavian took the name Augustus, becoming the first and arguably the most successful of all Roman emperors. He ruled a flourishing, peaceful, and expanding Roman Empire until his death at the age of 75 in 14 A.D.
